Controllable Pitch Propeller

Canada is not exactly known for having produced several ground-breaking inventions or discoveries in her time. However, the period of rapid technological advancement that she incurred during the third period of the history of engineering in Canada brought with it several important engineering inventions which had their roots in Canada. The creation of the controllable pitch propeller was one such invention which was perfected in Canada and was so successful that this primarily Canadian development spread throughout the world. Wallace Rupert Turnball lived in Rothesay and it was there that he carried out his experiments in aeronautical theory beginning in 1902. His specialty was that of dihedrals which he studied in a wind-tunnel. He looked at water borne hydroplanes propelled by motor-driven airscrews. An airscrew the Great Britain term for a propeller. A standard propeller consists of anywhere from two to four blades each a section of a helix, the geometric form of a screw thread, hence the term “airscrew.” The first plane had two air-screws on each side whereas the second one had only one, more highly efficient propeller located at the rear end of craft, near the pilot’s seat. However, both had an uneven torque of engine that was in fact destructive to the efforts of the propeller. Turnball experimented with all different types of air-screws; some with a 30” gauge track that were 300’ long for truck. With each air-screw he tested, he recorded the propeller thrust, rpm and the forward speed. What determines the forward speed is the distance that a propeller will move in the forward direction when the shaft of the propeller is rotated 360o. Assuming that there is no slippage, this distance is termed the geometric pitch. The propellers that Turnball tested had diameters ranging from 1.5’ up to 3.5’, all different dimensions and shapes. Upon his return to Rothesay in 1918, after the war, he dove into his research and experimentation on a possible controllable pitch propeller, an idea that he had been developing since the autumn of 1916. He ran several tests using rotating electric motor apparatus in order to spin the blades of his propeller. The finished product was a propeller whose pitch can be adjusted by the pilot, at different angles, during flight giving the pilot the ability to command the optimal combination of torque and speed for the situation at any given moment from his aircraft. By means of a small electric motor mounted just in front of the propeller, the pitch of the propeller itself could eventually be adjusted which makes for more efficient take-offs and regular flight than what would be achieved with an everyday “fixed blade” propeller incapable of any pitch change. Under the supervision of both the Ontario government and the Canadian Air Force, a ground test was run in 1923 on Avro aircraft at Camp Borden, Ontario only to conclude that more research and experimentation was necessary. Four years later, on June 6, 1927, again at Camp Borden on Avro Biplane, Flight Lieutenant G.G. Brookes took Turnball’s controllable pitch propeller for it’s first air test. Funding was granted immediately to perfect the invention it was such a success. The news of the Canadian invention spread rapidly. Turnball wrote a treatise based on his discoveries and new found technology called “The Efficiency of Aerial Propellers” which was published in the Scientific American on April 3, 1909. His second and third publications on the subject were entitled “Laws of Air-Screws” and appeared in The Aeronautical Journal, in the October 1910 and January 1911 issues. For his studies and discoveries, Turnball was awarded the Bronze Medal of Royal Aeronautical Society and was, in addition, elected a “Fellow.” Come 1914, Turnball had published several scientific articles and found himself one of the world’s authorities on the subject. He sold the patents to the controllable pitch propeller in December of 1929. The Curtiss Wright Corporation won the American rights and the Bristol Aeroplane Company, the English rights. In 1935, the Norseman, the most highly successful bush plane in the world at the time, was designed in Canada by Robert Noorduyn, an aviation engineer trained in Holland. The Norseman quickly caught the attention of the entire world due to the effectiveness of its design. It had a large capacity for cargo, flexible take-off and landing capabilities, ability to withstand harsh weather, can be easily flown in either day or night and is capable of flying great distances. Noorduyn’s Norseman, which utilized Turnbull’s controllable pitch propeller, was adopted around the world by countries that required short take off and landing (STOL) planes for their own reasons, most of which involved mining, lumbering and exploring isolated expanses of land which could not otherwise be reached quite as easily. W.R. Turnball’s invention of the controllable pitch propeller was clearly one of the most successful Canadian innovations in terms of world recognition. Once perfected, it was quickly bought up by major aircraft manufacturing companies around the world and mass produced to fulfill the global demand, at the time, for such a development in technology.

Construction Project

After several months of planning and design, excavation for the new ACES library on the University of Illinois campus began in May 1999. The project is sponsored and will be owned by the Board of Trustees for the University of Illinois. Six separate contractors are working together under one general contractor. The project, which began in May of 1999, is scheduled to be completed by February 2001. Through informal interviews with Charles O. Pickar we learned that the project is 4-5 weeks behind schedule. Pending weather conditions 25 to 35 workers usually present on site. The typical workday can run between 6:30am and depending on deadlines can last until 9-10pm. As of the third week in January 2000, the concrete foundation and the steel framework for the five-story structure, with the exception of the roof, were intact. The appendix of this report contains photographs of observed procedures and site materials. Observed Operations January 27, 2000 On the morning of January 27, two massive 18-wheel trucks carrying various shapes and sizes of steel beams were unloaded on site. It took almost two hours to unload each truck. A crane approximately 200 ft. high was used to move the steel from the truck onto wooden planks on the ground. The steel was separated by shape, and by using the quite large reaching span of the crane, the workers were able to deliver the beams directly from the truck to their appropriate sides of the site. This operation involved a six-man crew. Two men connected the hooks from the crane onto the steel. Two men guided the steel onto the planks on the ground. Two men took turns operating the crane. This process was very time consuming due to the amount of steel needed to be lifted entirely over the five story structure to the other side of the site, and due to what seemed to be a lack of experience of the rigging crew. It took them a very long time to make the connections on each beam, and check for security. These factors may have influenced the unloading time taken that morning. As these trucks were being unloaded, another crew of men worked in the basement. No equipment was being placed at that time, but people were hauling down tools and what looked to be some sort of electrical cords. Perhaps they were working to install some piece of equipment already lowered down there, or maybe they were moving already dropped equipment away from the opening in the floor to make room for more to be lowered. January 28, 2000 Installation of metal decking floor supports began on Friday, January 28. By the early afternoon, the level between the first and second stories was nearly complete. There were some openings left, mostly on the south side of the building, which will serve as stairways and elevator shafts. The center of the building also lacked decking, and judging by the design drawings, this section was left opened for a skylight, which will cover the apex of the roof upon completion. The decking between the second and third stories was about half installed by 3:00pm. A two-man team of welders worked to secure the union of the decking to the steel framework as each section was placed. Special protective masks and eye shields were used to ensure no damage was done to the eyesight of the welders during this process. Decking sheets lay in bundles on the beams between the third and fourth floors, awaiting installation. Upon completion, safety inspectors will come out to the site to check the torque on the bolts and the security of the welds. The sheets were placed connecting to studs sticking upward from the steel framework. The outside beams were such that they remained higher vertically than the steel reinforcement going in. This design allows for concrete to be poured over the decking without it spilling over the sides of the building. This entire process, including the welders, men placing the decking, and one man who was sweeping debris from the recently installed supports, entailed a crew of seven men. Due to the afternoon increase in snowfall, and the increase of wind, the crew began covering their equipment with plastic tarps and prepared to quit for the day at around 3:30pm. January 31, 2000 No work was done on this site during the weekend, but activity began again early Monday morning, January 31. The 200 ft. crane lifted three of six large steel beams onto the top mid section of the building, which will eventually support a roof that slants upward from the fifth story to the top of the skylight. The crane was attached to the top of the beams and lowered them vertically onto the structure. Each beam had three small steel ledges, which stuck out horizontally near the top, and were designed to support piping that will run above the ceiling. Two men waited, standing on the fifth story framework to secure the beams in place once the crane had placed them. These men drove spikes into holes in the beam to anchor them to the structure. Both wore safety harnesses to ensure that they wouldn't lose their balance while hammering the beams in place. By noon, three beams were set and secured. At the same time the mid section steel erection was taking place, another crew worked to pump concrete into the basement of the structure. A concrete mixing truck was backed up to a pump truck, which had a long arm reaching over into a hole in the concrete foundation. Two men watched to ensure that the materials flowed smoothly from the mix truck to the pump truck. Two other men stood near the end of the long arm of the pump truck, making sure the concrete reached its final destination. Perhaps this meant that all the necessary equipment for that area of the basement was installed, so the flooring was ready to be set. February 1, 2000 The afternoon of February 1 was exceptionally slow. The blowing snow forced the ironworkers to abandon their placement of any additional decking. Storage of steel beams is adjacent to the construction site organized by type and size. The steel beams are the main materials being used during this phase of the construction and are closest to the workers for convenience and efficiency. A few men worked down below in the basement, but no surface activity was happening. This delay no doubt forced the schedule back for the completed installation of flooring reinforcement, and in effect caused delays for pouring the floors. This leads to a domino effect, pushing back the completion dates of every other part of the process dependent on the flooring being secured and the basement equipment being installed, which in essence, is every other part of the project. February 2, 2000 While observing construction on Wednesday there were approximately eight workers operating the machinery and working with the steel materials. Two men were on the ground going through the piles and hooking up pieces of steel to the crane. The crane operator would move the beams away from the steel beam piles to other workers who would bolt the beams into position. You could observe today that workers have begun to lay steel sheets on the second story that has already been assembled. This steel is placed over the floor trusses and then bolted down. Within in the site there was a concrete bucket for the crane, which will most likely be used to pour concrete for the individual floors. They can only lay the steel and pour one floor at a time or the steel from the above floor will be in the way of getting the concrete bucket through. Within the construction site were piles of wire mesh and reinforcement bars. This probably will be used as reinforcement for the concrete floors. Safety remained important through out this phase of construction and was demonstrated through rails, which were placed around the floors and during the systematic processes used during the hooking and moving of individual steam beams. There were four electricity trucks present today and they appeared to be digging the power supply line to the building. Three men and a digging machine conducted the digging of the power supply line. February 3, 2000 On the afternoon of Thursday February 3, the site, just by looking, didn't seem to have made any progress from the previous day. However, workers were going down into the basement. Due to safety concerns, visitors were not allowed down below the structure. In order to find out what was happening, discussions with engineer Charles Pickar of Sebesta Blomberg and Associates, Inc. were used to fill in the blanks. He explained that the electricians and pipe fitters were working in the basement running conduit and laying pipe. As soon as they were done, the fire suppression people could get down there to spray the piping. They were working to get the necessary wiring complete so more equipment could be lowered and hooked up as soon as weather allowed. As for now, the site was supplied power through a shed, which was tapped into a near by permanent power supply. Some parts of the basement were already filled in, but one main hole was left opened to get the transformers and air handling units down. Also in the basement, men were laying diamond supports on the steel footings to prevent cracking in the concrete foundation from the stress of the columns. These processes all continued underground through the afternoon. February 4, 2000 The snow and wind on the afternoon of Friday, February 4 again forced the ironworkers to abandon lying any additional floor decking. A crew of three men prepared to drop a transformer into the basement. The crane was extendible and looked to be at about 100 ft. The riggers took their time securing the connection, but due to wind, never attempted to move the unit. Mr. Pickar later explained that this particular type of crane is not very stable. If the load sways while being transferred, there is a great possibility that it will flip. Keeping in mind operator safety, as well as the safety of nearby crewmembers, risks are just too great to attempt transfer today. Tarps covered the transistors and the crane lowered and folded up. Mr. Pickar also mentioned that a late delivery of hangers for the basement earlier in the project was already pushing everything behind schedule. The weather problems further added to those delays. Looking at the architectural drawings covering several tables in the construction office, it was noted that there will eventually be a tunnel running underground out the north end of the library and into nearby buildings. Several revisions had to be made on these drawings, especially in regards to the structure itself, to modify the ideas of the designer with the feasibility of engineering. Sebesta Blomberg, which is primarily an engineering company, did most of the modifications. There were almost 1000 pages just of architectural design and several other books of drawings, such as electrical and mechanical work, which were equally as thick. These all seemed to be labeled in an efficient manner to assure that pages could be easily located. This is especially useful when phone calls come in and someone needs to know something like a dimension on a certain machine in a certain room. People with identical books can easily direct another over the phone to a specific page. Depending on the type of work it entails, specific areas within each book are easy to find just by reading the markings on the bottom corners of the pages. Safety Issues In reference to safety issues other than the specific situations mentioned before, it was noted that anyone entering the site was required to wear a hard hat as well as construction boots. Every worker wore thick gloves and some wore safety eyeglasses. All crane operations were taken slowly and all ironwork was called off at the first signs of slickness or dangerous winds. Anyone operating machinery, such as the welders or crane operators were trained and certified prior to working. All visitors were required to sign in and out to alert those in charge as to who was on site in case of an emergency. The construction office bookcase was filled with safety manuals, OSHA guides, project management workbooks, structural welding guides etc. All the drawings contained clear markings referring to placement of safety equipment, such as fire alarm and hose reels. Safety inspection was accounted for in the scheduling process and any sort of risks taken very seriously by all members of the working and management crew. Construction Observation Conclusions In conclusion, this construction project reflects a complex system of seemingly unrelated activities, which in actuality are crucially dependent on one another. The timing of the start and finish of every little detail is scheduled so that it fits in the order necessary to complete the project in the most efficient way. Advanced planning, foresight, and experience are used to ensure processes are done in the right order. An example of this is the basement project. The design must call for a section of flooring to be left out. Hangers have to go in before wire and pipes, which have to go in before machinery, which has to go in before fire safety equipment and inspection, which has to be done before the floor gets closed up. Each link in the chain is essential. Delays can easily build up fast if one link can't finish the job. It's the responsibility of the construction manager to ensure that materials get there on time and that workers have the qualifications and tools necessary to complete the task. The construction manager must keep an eye on all aspects of the project, paying special attention to safety codes and restrictions, and understand the interdependence of each days events in order to avoid delays, maintain a safe working environment, and keep the schedule moving smoothly until every final detail has reached completion

Civil Engineering

Why do I want to be a civil engineer? Until recently, I did not know the answer to this question myself. I was lost when choosing a career. Then, I read about civil engineering, an occupation involving the construction of buildings, roads, and bridges. As I looked farther into civil engineering, I liked many of the other aspects involved with the career. Although the education will be difficult, I have determined that civil engineering is the career that I want to pursue. What is civil engineering? This career can not be defined using just a few words. The many obstacles that civil engineers must overcome cover a vast area of responsibilities. “Civil engineers conceive, plan, construct, and operate facilities that meet basic human needs and reach out toward the realization of society’s most noble goals” (Auburn 106). Civil engineers solve real world problems with the combination of applying mathematics and natural sciences (Hagerty and Heer 2-3). Upon deciding to pursue a career in civil engineering, I must have many attributes that help me decide for myself if I am right for this career. Probable civil engineers can be found occupying their childhood time with mechanical toys and structural sets instead of traditional toys. These people will get enjoyment from planning, designing, and constructing works or facilities. They also have the ability to see how intelligent use of nature has made our civilization today possible and have the desire to want to improve it (Golze 41). As a child building blocks filled my toy chest, and erector sets filled my playroom. I loved the challenge of building things and making things work. A young passion for the work of a civil engineer leads me to believe I could succeed in this field. The education of a civil engineer deals mainly with math and natural sciences. The first four semesters of curriculum required, which I will take at Northeast Alabama Community College, are the basics such as Calculus I - IV, differential equations, statistics, English, history, literature, speech, chemistry, and physics (Northeast 40). After completion of the requirements at Northeast Alabama Community College, I plan to attend Auburn University. “Auburn University’s institutional mission is to prepare students for the ethical practice of civil engineering” (Auburn 106). When beginning my studies at Auburn University, I will be required to take classes that go even deeper into civil engineering. Classes such as hydraulics, statics, and water treatment, are required to give an engineer a base to help solve problems in real world situations (Auburn 106). By taking classes such as these, I will be more prepared to face any problems encountered on the job. At many schools, students are able to study and gain work experience at the same time through cooperative programs. These programs allow students to get a first-hand look at experiences related to the job while still pursuing their education in that career. The close relationship between the school and the industry is important because both continue to educate the student (Hagerty and Heer 47-50). After completing my requirements at Northeast Alabama Community College, I plan to attend Auburn University and enter its cooperative program and engineering school. I hope that the knowledge I will gain from both institutions will lead me into a successful career as an engineer. Civil engineers use their knowledge of material science, engineering theory, and economics to devise, construct, and maintain our physical surroundings. The work duties depend on many different areas of specialization in engineering. A structural engineer, who is concerned with loads to which the structure is exposed, must calculate the maximum load that the structure can hold. On the other hand, a public works engineer must anticipate and be responsive to social needs. A company will start a young, inexperienced engineer out with few responsibilities. As the engineer gains experience, he or she will also gain additional responsibilities (Hagerty and Heer 89). The practice of civil engineering pays the lowest salary of all engineering fields. However, over the past few years, civil engineering graduates have seen a 2.7 % increase in their starting salaries. The average annual starting salary, according to an article in the Memphis Business Journal, is $30,618 dollars (Scott 4). Those who pursue a career in civil engineering do not make their decision based on salary. Instead, they derive satisfaction from the good done by helping meet the social and economic needs of the people (Hagerty and Heer 88). Aiding the public’s most common needs is what interests me the most. The task of creating a more efficient and safer way of producing and transporting water to an ever-increasing population is just one of the problems I hope to solve as a civil engineer. One of hardest decisions I made in my choosing civil engineering as a career was the acceptance of earning a lower salary. However, I could not place a numerical value on the satisfaction I believe this career will bring me. There are many different specialties involved with civil engineering that need to be considered when choosing this career. Some of these specialties are transportation engineering, structural building, and water resource management. A closer look into all of the fields lead me to the conclusion of specializing in water resource management. This occupation is concerned with the safe and adequate transportation of water to the public. Currently, I am employed by the Waterworks Board of Section and Dutton as a general laborer. On the other hand, I would love to delve farther into all aspects of water resource management. In his 1966 essay on civil engineering, Eliassen predicted “the field of water resource management will be great” (92). Eliassen’s statement has been proven factual and the many problems that will arise in the future offers great job security. One of the task may involve getting a sufficient amount of clean, healthy water to an ever-growing population. Solving these problems will take people who have specialized in economics, statistics, political science, system analysis, and management. What predictions could be made about the future of engineering students? In his 1969 book, Beakley predicted that employment would be no problem and that more engineers would be needed than colleges could supply (25). However, Scott’s 1996 article in the Memphis Business Journal states that employment outlook is not as promising as it was 15 to 25 years ago. Still, engineers will not be hungry for work. Many feel that they will be able to find jobs. Enrollments in schools of engineering across the country have dropped, but as jobs and salaries increase, so will students enrolling with hopes to make better lives for themselves (Scott 1-4). Advancement is almost certain as a young engineer develops his or her skills and as the employer gains confidence in his or her ability. Some civil engineers might stay with a company their entire professional lives. In contrast, others could choose to move around looking for advancements. Upon the retirement, replacement, and advancement of more experienced engineers, the younger engineers will have the chance to slowly move their way up the corporate ladder. In any circumstance, an ambitious, young, and qualified engineer should seek advancements both personally and professionally (Hagerty and Heer 129). Why would I want to be a civil engineer? The desire of new challenges, the longing to help the overall public, and the need to do something positive with my life are three main reasons that I want to be a civil engineer. After extensive research, I have concluded that civil engineering is an ideal field for me. I believe that I have the personal attributes and intelligence required to be a civil engineer. I also believe that I possess the work habits and drive to be a successful engineer. This is why I have chosen to pursue this as a career.

Bibliography

Auburn University 1999-2000 Undergraduate and Graduate Bulletin. Auburn, AL, 1997. Beakley, George C., and H.W. Leach. Careers in Engineering and Technology. London: Macmillan, 1969. Eliassen, Rolf. “Civil Engineering.” Listen to Leaders in Engineering. Ed. Albert Love and James Saxon Childress. Atlanta: Tupper, 1966. Golze, Alfred R. Your Future in Civil Engineering. New York: Richards, 1965. Hagerty, D. Joseph, and John E. Heer, Jr. Opportunities in Civil Engineering Careers. Skokie: VGM, 1977. Northeast Alabama Community College 1998-1999 Catalog. Rainsville, AL, 1998. Scott, Jonathan. “The Ups and Downs of Engineering.” Memphis Business Journal 17(12 Feb. 1996): 41-2. Electric Library 16 Nov. 1999.

Cellular Phones

Each day something like 30,000 people in the United States sign up for and start using a cellular phone. With a cell phone you can talk to anyone on the planet from just about anywhere (80% of the U.S. has coverage). A cell phone is really an extremely sophisticated radio. A cell phone is a duplex device which uses one frequency for talking and a second, separate frequency, for listening. A cell phone can communicate on 1,664 channels and operate within cells. They can switch cells as they move around. Cells give cell phones incredible range. Someone using a cell phone can drive clear across a city and maintain a conversation the entire time. The way a cellular phone does this is the carrier chops up an area (such as a city) into cells. Each cell is typically sized at about 10 square miles (perhaps 3 miles by 3 miles). Cells are normally thought of as hexagons on a big hexagonal grid. As you move toward the edge of your cell, your cell's base station will note that your signal strength is diminishing. Meantime, the base station in the cell you are moving toward, which is listening and measuring signal strength on all frequencies, will be able to see your phone's signal strength increasing. The two base stations coordinate themselves through the MTSO, and at some point your phone gets a signal on a control channel telling it to change frequencies. This “handoff” switches your phone to the new cell. Roaming makes things a bit more interesting. In modern systems, the phones listen for a System ID (SID) on the control channel at power-up. If the SID on the control channel does not match the SID programmed into the phone, then the phone knows it is "roaming". The phone also transmits a registration request and the network keeps track of your phone's location in a database. This way the MTSO knows which cell you are in when it wants to ring your phone. As you move between cells, the phone detects changes in the control channel's strength and re-registers itself with the new cell when it changes channels. If the phone cannot find any control channels to listen to it knows it is out of range and displays a "no service" message. Cell phones suffer from a problem known as "cloning". When your phone is "cloned" it means that someone has stolen your phone's ID numbers and is able to make fraudulent calls on your account. Here is how cloning occurs. When your phone makes a call, it transmits two pieces of information to the network at the beginning of the call: - A MIN (Mobile Identification number) - a 10 digit number derived from your phone's number (both the MIN and SID are programmed into the phone by the dealer) - An ESN (Electronic Serial Number) - a unique 32-bit number programmed into the phone when it is manufactured. The MIN/ESN pair is a unique tag for your phone, and it is how the phone company knows who to bill for the call. When your phone transmits its MIN/ESN pair, it is possible for someone to listen, with a scanner, and capture the pair. With the right equipment it is fairly easy to modify another phone so that it contains your MIN/ESN pair, and now someone else can make calls on your account.

Automotive Spaceframes

Aluminum usage in automobiles and light trucks has been climbing steadily. Even more important, auto manufacturers are beginning to see aluminum the way aircraft manufacturers do - as the basic structural material for their vehicles. Increasingly, in the case of carmakers, that thinking begins with an aluminum body structure such as the spaceframe. It's a new and potentially powerful trend. As recently as 1990, there were no aluminum-structured passenger cars in production anywhere in the world. The closest thing was the HMMV (Hummer), at that time strictly a military vehicle. As of 1997, there were seven aluminum-structured passenger cars in production. For three of them - Audi A8, Plymouth Prowler, and GM EV-1 - Alcoa has been the principal partner in designing, engineering and manufacturing aluminum components, subassemblies, and - in the case of the Prowler - the frame itself. And that's just the beginning. A concept car with a modular spaceframe in technology reviews held for Ford and Chrysler, Alcoa unveiled a vehicle concept embodying ideas for future cars and light trucks. The design is based on a spaceframe structure comparable to those Alcoa has helped to develop for the Audi A8 and Plymouth Prowler. But in the concept vehicle, the spaceframe is modular, a step toward using such structures in a broad range of future vehicles. By changing modules, a carmaker could produce a sedan, a sport utility vehicle, and a pickup truck, all from a single production platform. New programs with Daimler-Benz and Chrysler Alcoa is producing the front energy management structure for the new Mercedes-Benz A-class car (above) now selling in Europe. This 11-piece structure was designed by Alcoa and is robotically assembled at Alcoa's plant in Soest, Germany. Production volume is expected to reach 1,000 units per day. For Chrysler, an aluminum rear crossmember designed and manufactured by Alcoa improves the handling and noise-vibration-harshness performance of the all-new 1998 Dodge Intrepid and Chrysler Concorde as well as the 1999 Chrysler LHS and 300M models. AAS will manufacture 270,000 units per year at its Northwood, Ohio plant. Something new around the windshield. A key advance incorporated in the 1997 Corvette is a first-of-its-kind windshield surround developed in a design and engineering collaboration of General Motors and Alcoa. An effective combination of aluminum cast and extruded products makes this an extremely stiff structure, helping the new Corvette to earn excellent reviews for its stiffness and superior handling. Northwood will produce 25,000 windshield surrounds annually. .Design tools to aid in product development New guidelines for use in designing automotive components have been installed at AAS operations in Esslingen, Germany; Southfield, Mich; and Alcoa Technical Center (ATC) near Pittsburgh. Developed by AAS and ATC, the guidelines will assist automotive engineers in evaluating product design and fabrication options. Objectives: Improve design quality and cut development time by 30%. Audi A8 is picked as a technological winner In December, the Audi A8 was named one of the top 25 Winning Technologies by Industry Week (IW) magazine in the U.S. The editors report: "The 1997 Audi A8 with its aluminum spaceframe body technology indicates what is possible when the status quo in materials is challenged in automotive design. The luxury sedan delivers a new standard in weight savings, structural integrity, safety, performance and comfort." IW traces the origins of the Audi spaceframe to "an early 1980s R&D initiative that became a joint-venture with Alcoa. The spaceframe took 10 years to develop," the editors note, "and is the result of 40 new patents, seven new aircraft-grade aluminum alloys, and extensive design analysis via supercomputers." Alloy A substance with metallic properties, composed of two or more chemical elements of which at least one is a metal. More specifically, aluminum plus one or more other elements, produced to have certain specific, desirable characteristics. Alumina Aluminum oxide produced from bauxite by an intricate chemical process. It is a white powdery material that looks like granulated sugar. Alumina is an intermediate step in the production of aluminum from bauxite and is also a valuable chemical on its own. Aluminum Spaceframe An integrated structure of aluminum castings and extruded parts that forms the primary body frame of a new generation of automobiles. Bauxite An ore from which alumina is extracted and from which aluminum is eventually smelted. Bauxite usually contains at least 45% alumina. About four pounds of bauxite are required to produce one pound of aluminum. Brazing Joining metals by flowing a thin layer of molten, nonferrous filler metal into the space between them. . Crossmember Component of a vehicle structure that spans the structure, joining two sides together. Engineered product A basic aluminum fabricated product that has been mechanically altered to create special properties for specific purposes; forgings and extrusions are examples of engineered products. Extrusion The process of shaping material by forcing it to flow through a shaped opening in a die. Fabricate To work a material into a finished state by machining, forming or joining. It all starts with dirt. This kind of dirt is called bauxite ore. If you looked at a four-ton truckload of it and someone asked, "What can you make out of that?" - you would think, "Not much. Maybe the base for a driveway." But from four tons of bauxite, it's possible to refine about two tons of alumina - a powdery oxide of aluminum. It's not easy. The technology is complex and the equipment is massive. But Alcoa has refined the refining process to an art. . And from those two tons of alumina, we can smelt a ton of aluminum. Smelting aluminum. Smelting aluminum was the invention that launched Alcoa launched Alcoa 111 years ago. A ton of aluminum is enough to make the cans for over 60,000 Cokes, Pepsi's or Buds. Enough to make the spaceframes for seven Audi A8 luxury cars. Enough to make40,000 computer memory disks, capable of storing all the books ever published. . Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element in the earth's crust and one of the more difficult to extract. It is always found locked in combination with other elements such as oxygen or sulfur, as part of various aluminum-bearing minerals notably bauxite. Once converted into its metallic state, aluminum is like no other material on earth. Its future is bright because its combination of useful properties is extraordinary. Aluminum is eminently recyclable. Aluminum pays its own way through the recycling loop. Making aluminum from recycled scrap takes only 5% of the energy it would take to make new metal from ore. Aluminum is... Light in weight - about a third as heavy as copper or steel. Highly resistant to corrosion. Strong, and can be made still stronger by adding small amounts of other metals in alloys. An excellent conductor of heat and electricity. An excellent reflector of heat and light. Nonmagnetic, a valuable property around compasses or sensitive electronics. Nontoxic, thus often chosen to package foods, beverages, and medicines. Outstanding in cryogenic properties - strong, not brittle in intense cold. Highly workable, capable of forming by all known metalworking processes.

Automobile Emissions

Pollution from automobile emissions has become over the past few decades an issue of great concern. With a growing number of motor vehicles on our roads great concern has been attributed to the effects of these emissions to our health and to the environment. Several of the gases emitted, which when present in certain concentrations in our atmosphere can be toxic, therefor these ultimate concentrations must never be achieved. Strict legislation as well as sophisticated control technology has been implemented in the automotive industry in order to limit the pollution caused. These aspects of automotive pollution shall be further discussed in this paper. KEYWORDS: Pollution, Car Pollution, Automotive emissions, Emission gases, Catalysts 1. INTRODUCTION The relationship between air pollution and automobile exhaust emissions has been established largely due to studies done in California. At first the problem was believed to be a combination of smoke and fog, which was similar to problems faced in London since the middle ages. In Los Angeles the severity of air pollution has caused vegetation damage, eye and throat irritation, a decrease in visibility as well as several other effects. Automobile and truck exhausts contain substances which can adversely affect human health when exposed to concentrations above ambient level. Emissions from automobiles usually consist of carbon monoxides, oxides from sulfur and nitrogen, unburned hydrocarbons, smog, and particulate matter, which includes smoke. Pollutant concentration and time of exposure are the two main factors which affect human health. Air emissions from automobiles can also have an overall effect on the environmental quality in several ways. Emissions from nitrogen oxides (NOx) can contribute to the acid deposition problem, combinations of NOx and hydrocarbons can help produce ozone and photochemical oxidants and lastly pollutants from automobiles and ozone formation can contribute to the ambient air pollution problem in urban areas. As a result of increasing concern about the role of the motor vehicle in contributing to these health and environmental problems as well as the possibility of these problems to increase due to a growing number of cars worldwide, strict legislation has caused engine emission control technology to quickly develop. As legislations become more severe, emission control technology is constantly changed or modified in order to meet the new requirements and reduce the emissions produced. This report shall focus on the health effects that automotive emissions such as gases and particulates may have as well as discuss the control of these emissions via legislation and technology. The technology discussed is primarily the present technology implemented to control automotive emissions, namely catalysts. 2. HEALTH EFFECTS OF AUTOMOTIVE EMISSIONS 2.1 EFFECTS OF GASEOUS EMISSIONS 2.1.1 Carbon Monoxide Carbon monoxide (CO) is found in high levels in the exhausts of diesel and petrol powered automobiles. CO is a colorless and odorless gas and can be toxic at certain levels. The effects of carbon monoxide is felt when inhaled, it enters the blood stream and binds to hemoglobin (which the CO has a higher affinity than oxygen by 240 to 1). The resulting compound formed is carboxlhemoglobin. The blood is then unable to supply oxygen to the cells. And depending the level of exposure, death may be the ultimate consequence. The formation of carboxlhemoglobin lowers the available hemoglobin. Normal individuals will not feel any effects until 5% to 10% of hemoglobin is transformed. As carboxlhemoglobin increases, symptoms such as headaches, visual disturbances, nausea and vomiting and coma may occur. Death may occur if levels of carboxlhemoglobin reach the vicinity of 70%. Usually levels of carbon monoxide are low except in enclosed areas. On average most carboxlhemoglobin levels are under 5%. Since low level exposure to carbon monoxide is not well understood, it is believed that it might contribute to cardiovascular disease. The heaviest exposures to motorist occur in heavy (stop and go) traffic. When considering the effects of carbon monoxide, it is usually easily overlooked. Barometric pressure has a direct influence of the amount of oxygen available in the body (especially if there is a drop). But in general people who live in high altitudes have higher levels of hemoglobin in their bodies (hence compensates for lower levels of oxygen). For cities at high elevations with pollution problems such as Mexico the same CO concentrations at sea level may have no effect to the population but may have impact with those with health problems. 2.1.2 Nitrogen Oxides There are several species of nitrogen oxides. But for our discussion we will consider N2O since the others have relatively no toxic effects. Nitric oxide is produced in the greatest quantity during combustion. It has no direct effects on health because it has a tendency to rapidly disappear into the atmosphere. In the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight and other reactive hydrocarbons is transformed into N2O and other photochemical oxidants. Nitrogendioxide (a brownish gas) is a visible component of smog, which directly affects human health. The following figure illustrates this cycle Figure 1. Figure1 Long term studies were done on animals to determine the overall effects of nitrogendioxide. There were changes observed such as ciliary loss in upper respiratory tract in rats and mice, emphysematous changes in dogs, and edema in squirrel monkeys. Also scientists observed that NO reduces resistance to bacterial and viral infections. Research on humans, based on exposure levels of 4-5 ppm. Researchers noticed an increase in expiratory flow resistance. High occupational exposure has lead researchers to record exposure levels of unto 250 ppm. In some cases weeks apart, there were rapid onset of fever, chills and difficulty breathing. But there were no definite effects of nitrogen dioxide at ambient levels. 2.1.3 Volatile Organic Compounds These volatile organic compounds (VOCs) make up the lower boiling fractions of fuels and lubricants, and partially combusted fuels. These VOCs are emitted during refueling, leakage in the engine, and tailpipe. VOCs are complex compounds of aliphatics, olefins, aldehydes, hetones and aromatics. Many these compounds are known to be potentially hazardous to human health. But in general these compounds are found in such low quantities there are no fears of having direct effects on human health. Rather these compounds have a direct effect on photochemical smog. 2.1.3.1 Effects of Benzene Prolonged exposure to benzene especially in the respiratory tract or cutaneous contact can result in aplastic anemia or acute myelogenous leukemia. Bone marrow is also affected. When the bone marrow is affected it decreases circulation in the erythrocyte, platelets and leukocytes. Benzene related leukemia usually affects workers exposed to it for periods of forty years. 2.1.3.2 Effects of Aromatics Aromatics have been added in modern day fuels which contain high levels of benzene. The total benzene emission increase is directly proportional to the amount of aromatics found in fuels. For about every 1% of aromatics there is 4% of benzene. It was also found that the amount of non-benzene aromatics in fuels also results in a n increase in tailpipe emissions of benzene. 2.1.3.3 Effects of Hydro Carbons Aliphatic hydrocarbons upon inhalation may be harmful, because in high concentrations, they depress the central nervous system causing dizziness and incoordination. It is generally accepted that low level exposures have no or little effects on the human body. But they do play an important role in photochemical smog. 2.1.3.4 Effects of Alcohol With the additions of methanol and ethanol as fuel additives was implemented to reducing emissions. But the problem is that these additives are very volatile hence they will contribute to the overall VOC load. The problem with additives such as methanol tends to emit formaldehyde. And formaldehyde is a carcinogen and a key component to photochemical smog. 2.2 PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG There are two types of smog. The first, which has been known for a long time, is when there is an incomplete combustion of coal. This phenomena produces sulfur dioxide and smoke and in combination with fog forms smog. The second type is when automobiles exhaust produces oxidative pollutants, which leads to photochemical smog. Photochemical smog results from the atmospheric reaction between certain hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight. The most common effects on the human body by photochemical smog are eye irritation, potential effects on the respiratory system, reduced visibility and plant damage. During intense smog periods, ozone levels tend to reach hazardous levels. Hence these levels will also have an adverse effect on human health. Studies have been done in determining the effects of ozone on animals and humans. Exposures to 6 ppm of ozone for a period of four hours will have about a 50% mortality rate among rats and mice. At levels of (ozone) about 1 ppm will have adverse effects (permanent damage) on the respiratory tracts of small animals. Some animals also developed some form of immunity to low levels of ozone. Studies done on humans were done using low levels of ozone for relatively short periods of time. Hence long term effects are unknown. For short-term effects to ozone exposure humans expressed similar patterns to those of animals. It was found that humans obtain some form of immunization. Other research showed that asthmatics did not suffer more effects from ozone exposure than did other individuals with or without light exercise, there was irritation at 0.12 ppm with high exercise levels and the effect at high exercise levels was a product of ozone concentration, ventilation rate and exposure time. 2.3 PARTICULATE EMISSIONS 2.3.1 Lead Because of high compression ratios built automobiles (generally American built cars), these automobiles use to require high-octane (90-100) octane gasoline for high performance. To obtain such levels at the time either tetraethyl lead or other organometallic compounds, or by increasing the aromatic content of the gasoline. But through environmental awareness advanced countries have reduced or cut out lead in gasoline products. The removal of lead was also necessary for catalyst equipped cars to function properly. The effects of lead were very important for the removal from gasoline powered automobiles. High lead concentrations have adverse effects on human heath such as neurotic, renal, and reproductive effects. At lower levels of lead exposure it may cause hyperactivity, auditory deficiencies, reduction in intelligence, and reduced nerve conduction. Also by measuring blood lead levels in humans it was found by lowering the lead emission lower the lead blood levels. 2.3.2 Diesel Emissions Diesel engine powered automobiles are very similar to powered by petrol with the exception that diesel engines produce a lot more particulate emissions. As discussed earlier particulate emissions are believed to be carcinogenic. High exposures to diesel particulate resulted in lung inflammation, accumulations of soot and chronic lung disease in rats. Lung tumors also increased at high concentrations but none were found at low levels. 2.3.3 Manganese Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbon (MMT) is another metal containing anti lock additive. This additive has been used in petrol cars since the phase out of leaded fuels to increase compression. The concentration of MMT is very low in petrol fuels. Hence there has been little or no effect in the rise of manganese emissions. Chronic exposure to high levels of manganese (in occupational settings) has resulted in maganism. Maganism is a disease, which produces psychotic behavior with hallucinations, delusions and compulsions. Also it may result in a condition resembling Parkinson and eventually death may occur in a severe case. 3. EMISSION CONTROL 3.1 EXHAUST EMISSIONS CONTROL LEGISLATION Legislation requiring the control of emissions from motor vehicles was first introduced in America in the 1600's and has been progressively revised by incorporating reduced emissions requirements. An important step in emission control was taken in the 1970 amendment to the United States Clean Air Act which required a 90 % reduction in carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, and nitrogen oxide emissions. Figure 3.1 illustrates the percentage of these pollutant resulting from automobile emissions. POLLUTANT TOTAL AMOUNT VEHICLE EMISSIONS Amount Percentage NITROGEN OXIDES 36 019 17 012 47 HYDROCARBONS 33 869 13 239 39 CARBON MONOXIDE 119 148 78 227 66 Table 3-1 Pollution Accounted by Automobile Emissions in 1989 (1000 tons) The 1970 amendment requirements were so stringent for that period that they could not be met with available engine technology. New technology has since been developed and the requirements have been met. However, more rigid standards are continuously being proposed to improve emissions. While significant improvements to fuel economy, power output, and emissions have been made in recent years by modification and control, none of them have resulted in an engine capable of meeting current American standards while maintaining satisfactory driveability, power output, and fuel economy without the use of catalyst units in the exhaust system. 3.2 THE USE OF CATALYSTS FOR EMISSION CONTROL The concept of using a catalyst to convert carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides to less environmentally threatening compounds such as nitrogen, water and carbon dioxide was a well established practice prior to the need arising from motor vehicle emissions. However, rapid changes in exhaust gas temperature, volume and composition were features not previously encountered in chemical and petroleum industry applications. Other unique requirements were the control of emissions such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and nitrous oxide which could result from secondary catalytic reactions and for the catalyst system to maintain its performance after high temperature excursions up to 1000°C and in the presence of trace catalyst poisons such as lead and phosphorous.7 The principal reactions on automobile exhaust Catalysts are as follows: Oxidation Reactions: 2CO + O2 Þ 2CO2 4HC + 5O2 Þ 4CO2 + 2H2O Reduction Reactions: 2CO + 2NO Þ 2CO2 + N2 4HC + 10NO Þ 4CO2 + 2H2O + 5N2 By the nature of the oxidation and reduction reactions which are involved in the removal of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides and the operating characteristics of the preferred catalyst, several combinations of engine/catalyst systems have been used since catalysts were introduced on American cars in 1975. 3.2.1 The Carbon Monoxide/Hydrocarbon Oxidation Catalyst Concept When emission control is primarily concerned with carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons and not with nitrogen oxide, such as is the case in the European "Euronorms" standards, oxidation catalysts are used. Key features of this system are the use of a secondary air supply to the exhaust gas stream to ensure oxidizing conditions under all engine operating loads and the use of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) to limit nitrogen oxide emissions from the engine. A schematic of this system is shown in Figure 3.1. Figure 3-1 The Oxidation Catalyst This System was used initially in America to meet interim emission standards and is likely to be adopted to meet similar standards on medium and smaller engine cars (less than 2 litter engines) in Europe. 3.2.2 Dual Bed and Threeway Catalyst Concepts In order to overcome the limitations imposed by the use of EGR and to meet more rigid nitrogen oxide standards, catalysts capable of reducing nitrogen oxide emissions are necessary. Initially, as a result of the difficulty of controlling air/fuel ratios to the tolerances required by a single catalyst unit, a dual catalyst bed was used. In order to ensure reducing conditions in the first catalyst bed, where nitrogen oxides were reacted, the engine was tuned slightly rich of the stoichiometric ratio. Secondary air was then injected into the exhaust stream ahead of the second catalyst bed (oxidation bed) to complete the removal of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. With developments in engine control and catalyst technology involving widening the air/fuel operating window for 90 % removal of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, the dual bed system has been replaced with a single threeway catalyst unit. A schematic of this system is shown in Figure 3.2. Figure 3-2 The Three-way Catalyst Key features of this system, in addition to the catalyst unit, are an electronically controlled air/fuel management system incorporating in its most advanced form, the use of an oxygen sensor to monitor and control exhaust gas combustion. Systems such as this are now universal on American and Japanese cars and in those countries that have adopted similar emission standards. The performance of the Threeway Catalyst system is summarized in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3. Cold ECE 15 HC + NOX NOX CO cycle, g/test Without Catalyst With Catalyst Without Catalyst With Catalyst Without Catalyst With Catalyst PEUGEOT 205 18.3 8.5 7.8 5.8 26.3 8.8 FIAT UNO 45 15.2 4.1 6.2 2.7 26.7 9.8 VW GOLF C 16.1 6.4 5.7 2.0 50.5 42.7 ROVER 213 12.3 5.2 3.6 1.4 46.7 27.5 Table 3-2 Emission Levels from small vehicles Polycyclic Aromatic Emissions, mg/mile Hydrocarbon Without Catalyst With Catalyst phenanthrene 1.85 0.16 anthracene 0.61 0.04 fluoranthrene 2.27 0.23 pyrene 2.91 1.50 perylene 1.21 0.40 benzo(a)pyrene 0.94 0.17 benzo(e)pyrene 2.76 0.41 dibenzopyrenes 0.28 0.23 coronene 0.41 0.27 Table 3-3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Emissions from a Programmed Combustion Engine 3.2.3 Lean Burn Catalyst Systems Engine operations with air/fuel ratios of 20:1 is a good way of reducing nitrogen emissions and improving fuel economy. However, with current engine technology, in order to achieve nitrogen emissions consistent with US legislation, the engine must operate in a very lean region where, as shown in Figure 3.3, hydrocarbon emissions that increase to levels which may exceed current American standards. In these situations an oxidation catalyst is incorporated into the exhaust system to control hydrocarbon emissions. Figure 3-3 The Effect of Air/Fuel Ratio on Engine Operation A feature of the ECE15 European test cycle was its low average speed as it is intended to be representative of city driving. The emissions that result are therefore typical of low speed, low acceleration conditions. A more representative cycle incorporating higher speeds and accelerations has been introduced so as to assess emissions under other conditions including urban and highway driving. In order to develop and maintain a higher speed more power is required from the engine which, in the case of the lean burn system, means decreasing the air/fuel ratio. This in turn increases nitrogen oxide emissions to levels where current engine technology is likely to exceed standards (See Figure 3.3). It is therefore desirable that catalysts used on lean burn engines should in addition to having a hydrocarbon oxidation capability also have a nitrogen oxide reduction capability when fuel enrichment occurs for increased engine power. The effect on the reduction of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide emissions which can be achieved on a lean burn engine using a catalyst with oxidation and reduction capabilities is shown in Table 3.4 for a Volkswagen Jetta Series 1, powered by a 1.4 litter Ricardo High Ratio Compact Chamber lean burn engine. ECE 15 Cold Start Cycle g/test Hydrocarbons Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Oxides Without Catalyst 11.7 15.9 5.9 With Catalyst 1.7 12.4 4.2 Table 3-4 Lean Burn Engine Emissions 3.2.4 Diesel Exhaust Emission Control Although Diesel engines emit relatively low concentrations of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons and have a better fuel economy compared to gasoline powered vehicles, particulate emissions are of concern. Along with the carbon particulates which are produced during the combustion process are a range of aromatic hydrocarbons, which was one of the main reasons that the EPA established standards to limit particulate emissions.8 The carbon and the associated organics produced during combustion may be collected on a filter and removed by oxidation so that the filter regenerates and is effective for the life of the vehicle. As the particulates are not oxidized at a significant rate below 600°C which occurs in the exhaust system only when the engine is running at or near full power, catalysts are introduced into the filter which reduces the oxidation temperature to approximately 300°C. Table 3.5 compares emissions from an exhaust system with a catalyst to that of a system without.9 g/mile HC CO NOX Particulate Without catalyst 0.24 1.01 0.90 0.23 With catalyst 0.05 0.16 0.79 0.11 Table 3-5 Catalytic Control of Diesel Exhaust Emissions 3.2.5 Catalytic Combustion Nitrogen oxide emissions result mainly from the reaction between oxygen and nitrogen at temperatures arising from the combustion of fuel whether it is initiated by spark, as in the gasoline engine, or compression as in the diesel engine. Leanburn operation of a gasoline engine, as described earlier, offers a partial solution to the problem but is limited by hydrocarbon emissions as the non-flammability limit for spark ignition is approached. While the diesel engine does not have these advantages it is limited by high particulate emissions. A solution to this problem is to use a catalyst to ignite the air/fuel mixture thus overcoming the constraining factors of the gasoline and diesel engines. Having removed this constraint, the engine is able to operate at a compression ratio of 12 to 1. Combustion efficiency and mechanical energy is thus optimized which results in a maximized fuel economy.10 The principle of the catalytic engine is that during the engine operating cycle, the fuel is injected into the combustion chamber just before the start of combustion is required. This fuel is then mixed with the air already in the cylinder and then passed through the catalyst, where heat release occurs. Since the charge is passed through a catalyst, oxidation can occur at low temperatures and very lean mixtures. This results in complete fuel oxidation which enables the engine to run unthrottled and therefore lean, which provides good fuel economy. The formation of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide in the combustion chamber is also strongly dependent on the air/fuel ratio and lean operation results in reduced emissions of these pollutants in the exhaust. The catalyst enables oxidation of hydrocarbons at much lower temperatures than normally possible, so the emission is also reduced. 4. CONCLUSION Since the introduction of legislation in America in 1970 requiring substantial reductions in emissions from motor vehicles, catalyst technology has played a major part in maintaining air quality. With the introduction of similar standards in other countries, the automobile industry represents the largest single use for catalyst systems. However, it must be noted that the internal combustion engine will soon approach its development limit as far as emission technology is concerned. The need for significant reduction in carbon dioxide, hydrocarbon, and nitrogen oxide emissions will ultimately require the use of an alternative energy source to power vehicles. Developments are being pursued in the use of "clean fuels" such as reformulating gasoline and diesel fuel as well as methanol and natural gas in advanced engine design. Ultimately however, we can expect severe environmental legislation which will be met only by a completely new power source. Efforts are being undertaken by the automotive industry to replace the current power source for automobiles. Electric powered cars, solar powered cars and vehicles which utilize several power sources concurrently (hybrid) are all being intensively researched. While the emission standards for cars set by the 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments were considered adequate at the time, air quality has not significantly improved as projected due to the expanding car population in industrialized countries. By observing the possible ill effects to human health and well being mentioned earlier, it can only be concluded that for the eventual "cleaning" of our atmosphere, a power source with 0 emission will one day need to be implemented in our main means of transportation, the automobile.

Bibliography

K.C. Taylor, Chem Tech., London, New York: Chapman and Hall, 1990; pp 525-60 8. H Klingenberg & H. Winneke, Total Environment, Houston: Gulf publishing, 1990; pp 95-106. 9. B.E. Enga, Platinum Metals Review, New York: Chapman and Hall, 1982;pp26-32 10. Ibid., pp 45-54

Anti-Trust Legislation

As many people have noticed, recently there has been a huge focus in the media on Bill Gates, and his huge Microsoft Corporation. This past Friday, May 22, 1998, a federal judge combined two lawsuits and set a trial date for September 8, 1998. This trial date will address a government request for a preliminary injunction concerning Windows 98 as well as broader issues. The Sherman Anti-trust Act was passed in 1890. Then in 1914 the Clayton Act was passed to help with Anti-trust Cases. Anti-trust Lawsuits are few and far between, but recently cases against Microsoft are stacking up all around the world. In 1890 the Sherman Anti-trust Act was passed, but it was not until much later that it was enforced. The Act stated "every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations." The Sherman Anti-trust act was too vague and too difficult to enforce. The Clayton Act of 1914 helped this problem by making a more specific attack on monopolies. Things like predatory price-cutting, price discrimination, and acquisition of stock in a competing company with intent to destroy competition all became illegal. John D. Rockefeller is a prime example of monopolies in US History. By buying out competitors, or driving them out of business he obtained nearly 100 percent of the market in oil refining. The Standard Oil Company was eventually forced to dissolve into smaller companies after the case Standard Oil Company vs. United States, 221 U.S. 1 (1911). Before this case the Anti-trust Laws had not been put to much use, which was not to the benefit of consumers. Now the spotlight is on Microsoft Corporation, and their apparent attempt to take over the Internet browser market. Concerns aroused recently because of the expected release of Windows 98, which uses Microsoft Internet Explorer in almost every application it runs. The US government has seemingly acknowledged Microsoft's monopoly of operating systems and let it go by because of lack of competition in the market. But now new issues are at stake, should Microsoft be allowed to expand its already almost monopoly into yet another field in the computer industry? With the incorporation of Microsoft Internet Explorer into the Microsoft operating system Windows 98, Netscape Communications Corporation felt vulnerable, and filed complaints with the Justice Department. Once the investigations were initiated, it seemed flocks of people jumped the bandwagon to attack the alleged Microsoft Corporation Monopoly. 20 State Attorney Generals and the District of Columbia, along with the Justice Department have filed against Microsoft Corporation. Japan has also filed an Antitrust Lawsuit against Microsoft. It seems that everywhere Microsoft is, there looms a bit of concern for the consumers and their futures. Currently 90 percent of the world's personal computers run on Microsoft operating systems. The remaining ten percent of the industry is divided between Apple's Macintosh, IBM's OS/2, and Unix. The federal and state antitrust regulators are arguing that Microsoft has illegally used the popularity of its operating systems to eliminate its competition in the software industry. Many economists feel that these lawsuits against Microsoft Corporation could be as revolutionary as those against Bell Telephone in 1984 and John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company in 1911. Microsoft Corporation however, disagrees, arguing that the changes being demanded by federal and state government will take months to perform and would cause the software to be useless. Microsoft clings strongly to their beliefs that Windows 98 cannot succeed without Internet Explorer. "Such an operating system - which would take many months (if not years) to develop and test - would bear little, if any, resemblance to Windows 98 because Internet Explorer technologies are such a critical element of that product," Microsoft wrote. Although it may be true that Windows 98 is based around Internet Explorer, should the government allow Microsoft to sell its product and gain more market share? One option that federal and state governments gave Microsoft was to have the Windows 98 package be sold with the Netscape Navigator Browser, Microsoft's main competitor. This request was seen as ridiculous by Mark Murray, a spokesman at Microsoft headquarters, who has been quoted as saying, "that's like the government forcing Coke to put two cans of Pepsi in every six-pack." The only choices being offered to Microsoft at this point are to "unbundle" Windows 98 and Internet Explorer, or to add in the Netscape Navigator Browser. The unbundling process is what Microsoft Corporation says will take seven months to handle, and therefore had asked for a delay for the court dates. The federal and state governments were demanding immediate court dates to assure that Microsoft would not be able to market Windows 98 as it is now. A compromise was made between the two differing requests, and the court date was set for September 8, 1998. Some foresee this as an advantage for Microsoft who will be able to sell their products through September. But the federal and state governments are happy that the court is not allowing them to go through the immense Christmas buying frenzy as well. It is most likely to the advantage of Microsoft more so than the government that the date was set for September, but only time will show what happens. These lawsuits allege that Microsoft Corporation is using its power with Windows 98 to stomp out any competition to the Microsoft Internet Explorer web browser, especially that of the Netscape Navigator Browser. Microsoft undoubtedly feels that they are only supplying consumers with the highest quality product for its value. When you consider that the Internet Explorer will be free compared to the Netscape Navigator Browser which must be purchased, it seems obvious whom the consumers will favor. Although the Internet browsers are the main focus of the Antitrust suit right now, there are other small details that have been somewhat overlooked. For instance, the government alleges that Microsoft forced computer makers to set up computers so that users saw the Windows logo whenever they turned on their machine. There is also evidence hinting that Microsoft tried to get Netscape to collaborate in order to avoid competition in the browser market. Netscape however, turned down the offer to join in an illegal conspiracy. Microsoft has been put under a bright spotlight where consumers are beginning to question the corporation's intent. It only seems natural that Microsoft would defend themselves with a large public relations campaign. For a company such as Microsoft, where the company name is also the brand name, it is extremely important that the public views them in goodwill. The new series of television commercials that Microsoft Corporation is broadcasting are designed to illustrate how Microsoft is helping the public. This type of campaigning is known as image advertising, it is designed to encourage goodwill toward the company, rather than sales of their products. So far there is little evidence to indicate that Microsoft has lost any support from the public due to the antitrust lawsuits. At best it seems that the Microsoft Corporation antitrust lawsuits are at a standstill until September 8, 1998. For the consumers' benefit, we can only hope that the US Supreme Court will rule in favor of the federal and state governments. If Windows 98 is released without being "unbundled" then the future of the information age, and all Internet related technologies will be forever changed. When there is no longer competition with Microsoft in any fields in the computer industry, then the consumers will be left with no choice but to support Microsoft no matter what happens. Prices could sky rocket, quality could plummet, and all because the monopoly could not be stopped until it was too late. Although Microsoft products might be better, especially when using them intertwined with one another, the elimination of competition - intended or not - is never to the benefit of the consumers.

Bibliography

1. Goodin, Dan; "Microsoft Trial Date: Sept. 8;" CNET NEWS.COM; May 22, 1998. 2. http://www.us-history.com/chpt_4.html 3. Paulson, Michael; "Microsoft Takes Fight to Court of Public Opinion;" Seattle Post-Intelligencer, May 20, 1998. 4. Paulson, Michael; "Microsoft Says Changes Sought Would Render Windows 98 Worthless;" Seattle Post-Intelligencer; May 22, 1998. 5. Rowley, James; "Microsoft Suits Are Filed;" Bloomberg News; May 18, 1998. 6. Rowley, James, and Squeo, Anne Marie; "Microsoft Loses Bid to Delay Trial of Antitrust Suit;" Bloomberg News; May 1998. 7. Squeo, Anne Marie, "Microsoft Seeks 7-Month Delay to Respond to Antitrust Suit;" Bloomberg News; May 21, 1998. 8. Zitner, Aaron; "Antitrust Suits Expected as Microsoft Talks Break Down;" The Boston Globe; May 17, 1998.